Archaeology Textbook and Ancient History Resources

trowelA series of resources is available for Senior Secondary students. These resources are of particular relevance to Year 11 Ancient History students.

Taken together these resources form chapters of a Textbook of Archaeology, an ongoing project for which OpenSTEM was commissioned. We publish new chapters as they are completed.

The resources are freely accessible to subscribers, and for individual sale and download for non-subscribers. You can find the PDFs in the Archaeology Textbook category of our online store.

Introduction

Archaeology Textbook Introduction

The introduction covers what Archaeology is, and what time periods it covers, as well as its relationship with other disciplines, including History, Anthropology and Palaeontology. This chapter also addresses the question of why we should study Archaeology and what role Archaeology can play both in our understanding of the Ancient, as well as the Modern world.

Part 1 – Archaeology Methods & Techniques

Includes dating techniques (both absolute and relative methods), stratigraphy and archaeological method.

Archaeological Survey

This chapter of the Archaeology textbook covers the question of how do archaeologists know where to dig and the role of Archaeological Survey, both as an adjunct to excavation, as well as in cases where excavation is not undertaken. The equipment used for archaeological survey, as well as some of the types of archaeological sites are described. Methods of survey are discussed and some real-world examples are given to provide context.

Archaeological Excavation

Archaeological excavation is the task most commonly associated with archaeologists, and yet it usually takes up the least time in an archaeologist’s calendar. This chapter of the Archaeology textbook examines how excavation is undertaken – as a methodical and meticulous process. Sections on Layout, Digging and Recording and Measuring cover the different aspects of archaeological excavation.

Types of Archaeological Finds

There are 3 main categories of finds in Archaeology – Artefacts, Ecofacts and Features. Each of these provide different information about the past, and may interact with each other as well. Together, they provide a comprehensive view of the site. This chapter of the Archaeology textbook explores these categories of finds, which archaeologists need to recognise for both excavation and analysis.

Analysing Archaeological Material

Archaeological analysis starts in the field and continues in the laboratory. Archaeologists start identifying and interpreting material as they discover it. The most important aspect of archaeological analysis is Context. There are many different ways of analysing different archaeological finds.

Absolute Dating Methods

Calendar-800pxIt is critical that archaeologists understand the relationship of archaeological material to time. In recent decades a suite of scientific methods of dating archaeological material has developed. These methods provide a calendar date range for the material, providing an ‘absolute’ date. Each of these methods can be used for different materials for different time periods and thus archaeologists can choose from this toolkit, which methods are most suitable for each particular situation.

Relative Dating Methods

Egyptian_-_Lotus_Bowl_-_Walters_48366The oldest forms of dating archaeological materials were the methods that did not provide calendar dates, but reveal which material is older or younger than other material. Many of these methods can now be linked to calendar date ranges by adding an absolute dating method. Relative methods are still an important resource for an archaeologist and often provide a better small-scale resolution of dates than absolute methods.

Part 2 – Archaeology Theory & Application

Includes elaborations and addresses some archaeological theory. Included in these chapters are Ethics in Archaeology.

History of Archaeology

Boucher_de_PerthesThe discipline of Archaeology has developed slowly over hundreds of years. Formalised during the fashion for Antiquities in Europe in the Enlightenment, Archaeology became a Science under the Victorians. The History of Archaeology’s development provides useful insights into the nature of the modern discipline (what it is and what it is not), as well as an introduction into the Ethics associated with the discipline.

Ethics in Archaeology

rg1024-Presentation-with-girl-300pxAs a Science, Archaeology has a strict code of Ethics. These ethics have developed out of the history of the discipline and play a very important role in modern Archaeology. Some of the ethics arise from the scientific nature of the discipline and some are broader, taking into account cultural issues. All are an important part of the understanding of the discipline.

Palaeolithic

In the early days of Archaeology there were 3 main chronological periods into which the past was divided – these were the Palaeolithic (meaning “Old Stone Age”), the Mesolithic (meaning “Middle Stone Age”) and the Neolithic (meaning “New Stone Age”). This chapter of the Archaeology textbook considers the Palaeolithic period and its relevance to modern archaeology.

Mesolithic

In the early days of Archaeology there were 3 main chronological periods into which the past was divided – these were the Palaeolithic (meaning “Old Stone Age”), the Mesolithic (meaning “Middle Stone Age”) and the Neolithic (meaning “New Stone Age”). This chapter of the Archaeology textbook considers the Mesolithic period and its relevance to modern archaeology.

Neolithic

In the early days of Archaeology there were 3 main chronological periods into which the past was divided – these were the Palaeolithic (meaning “Old Stone Age”), the Mesolithic (meaning “Middle Stone Age”) and the Neolithic (meaning “New Stone Age”). This chapter of the Archaeology textbook considers the Neolithic period and its relevance to modern archaeology.

Stratigraphy

An understanding of Stratigraphy is vital for understanding the context of archaeological material. Stratigraphy is the layers of deposit under the ground and can contain enormous amounts of information for an archaeologist – everything from dating material to understanding which tems belong with which other items, as well as what happened to the site both while it was being used by people and afterwards. This chapter of the Archaeology Textbook examines some of the basics of stratigraphy, as well as a glimpse into its complexities.

Part 3 – Case Studies

Includes examples from Lake Mungo to the Minoans on Crete, as well as discussions on hominins such as Homo erectus and Neanderthals.

Lake Mungo Archaeology

640px-Mungo_Great_WallOne of the oldest sites in Australia, Lake Mungo provides a good case study of the range of issues surrounding Aboriginal archaeology in Australia. Some of the issues also relate to a discussion of dating methods. Advances in dating accuracy have transformed and deepened the understanding of Lake Mungo’s role in Australian archaeology in recent decades.

Minoan Archaeology

Small_golden_double_head_minoan_axe_archmus_HeraklionUsing the story of Theseus and the Minotaur as a starting point, this case study examines the archaeological knowledge of Minoan society in the Ancient world. The picture of what we can reconstruct about Minoan life from the archaeological record is then compared to the legend of Theseus and the Minotaur in order to assess the historical accuracy and possible underlying subtexts of this ancient story.

Homo erectus

Homo_georgicusThe most successful hominin, Homo erectus inhabited the Earth for over 1.5 million years. These ancient people were the first to leave Africa, eventually inhabiting most of the planet and a range of climates. They learned to use fire and made stone tools. They developed a way of life – hunting and gathering, sharing their resources and looking after the sick and infirm, that was to become the basic pattern of human existence for millennia, until the invention of agriculture transformed society.

Neanderthals

Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison_enLong the butt of jokes and cruel caricatures, Neanderthals have remained a controversial subject. How closely were they related to us? What were the differences between them and us? What happened to them? These and other questions are examined in this resource. With each passing decade, as our techniques and understanding develops, we are able to unravel more and more of the story of these ancient people, and thereby understand ourselves better as well.

Homo naledi

Naledi-composite-sideonThe recent find of fossil bones in a cave in South Africa caused controversy in the media. The details of the fossils identified and the techniques employed in their excavation form a concise case study of the challenges for archaeologists and palaeontologists. Scientific method, technology, ethics, as well as ancient physical anthropology all play a role in the discussions about Homo naledi and are examined in this resource.

Homo floresiensis

In 2004 the discovery of a new type of hominin of very small size on the island of Flores in Indonesia, was announced. Since then there has been much research into this hominin, its anatomy, dates, environment and lifestyle. Researchers have admitted that some of their early conclusions were wrong and have tested the evidence and changed their opinions. As a result, we are getting a very clear understanding of these distant cousins on the greater family tree.  This case study gives the latest information, as well as examining the application of several archaeological techniques within the analysis.